Literature review
1.0 Establishing a foundation for the research project
1.1 Methodology for the reviews
In exploring the extensive field of color theory for this project, I have examined a broad collection of historical and contemporary sources; From influential color theorists, scientists and artists to essential publications that have shaped our understanding of color. This review offers insights into how color functions in both design and society.
Color theory is documented extensively, offering numerous sources and viewpoints across cultures and time periods. The sheer volume of information requires an approach beyond simple linear analysis. This literature review is a critical review as it it analyzing and discussing the content. A critical review is essential for evaluating and synthesizing theories, methods, and findings from existing literature, enabling a thorough understanding of the strengths and gaps in the field (1). Additionally, I incorporated elements of a narrative review, which offers a less rigid structure and emphasizes creating a cohesive narrative to contextualize and synthesize research findings. Unlike systematic reviews, narrative reviews allow for a more interpretive and flexible exploration of themes, making them ideal for this project’s aim of understanding the evolution of color theory and its multifaceted applications (2). This also aligns with the principles of action research, which emphasizes iterative cycles of reflection, action, and refinement in addressing practical challenges within a specific context (3).
To address this complexity within the field, I employed a mapping review approach to this literature review which is particularly suited to exploring the breadth of a research field, identifying key themes and uncovering potential gaps in the literature focusing on mapping the existing body of knowledge and are particularly useful for emerging or interdisciplinary topics (2). In the literature indices, further down, you'll find the sources: books, articles, etc. included in this project with comments and notes. these are the result of this mapping review techniques. Later I develop a circle model with categories within the field which is also a result of the mapping review.
These approaches, as outlined by Maria Grant and Andrew Booth (1), provide a comprehensive framework for exploring the multifaceted and interdisciplinary nature of color in design, ensuring both critical depth and methodological rigor. I have not only identified significant contributions and shifts within color theory but also highlighted less unexplored areas, forming a solid basis for the development of new frameworks and methodologies.
The further methodology of the research project itself can be found on this page.
1.1 Paradigm shifts
I have identified several paradigm shifts that reflect the evolution of color research and its applications. The analysis was informed by comparing critical texts like Aaron Fine’s Color Theory: A Critical Introduction (4) with Taschen’s new two-volume mega book; The Book of Color Concepts by Alexandra Loske and Sara Bader (5). Fine analyzes how color theory is not merely a technical or aesthetic subject but also a reflection of social, political, and cultural power structures. He argues that color theory has been shaped by Western, Eurocentric perspectives and calls for a more inclusive approach (4: Chapter 1 +3). The book provides an in-depth exploration of how color has been studied and applied across disciplines. Fine highlights how the understanding of color often balances between scientific measurements (physics, chemistry) and artistic intuition. Fine invites the reader to consider color not merely as a design tool but as a cultural and political force. This perspective makes the book valuable for those aiming to work more strategically and consciously with color. Fine also suggests that understanding a historical period requires examining its approach to color. Conversely, approaches to color and color theory also reveal much about the period itself (4: page 1). Loske and Bader provide a visual compendium of color systems through the centuries. This monumental work documents the extensive and historically significant role that color theory and the understanding of color have played throughout time and history. My comparison of the two sources, along with additional sources from my literature index, reveal how historical perspectives continue to influence contemporary applications in design and color theory.
1.2 Literature Index
The literature review is anchored in two large indices of references, which have been collected and systematically compiled and categorized. These indexes include historical and contemporary publications, ranging from early color treatises to cutting-edge digital tools and trend analyses. Together, they form the backbone of this project’s research foundation. The indices and their corresponding analyses are presented at the bottom of this page. The first index consist of all sources that have been collected and briefly reviewed. The other index is applied literature that is important for this project in some way that have been synthesized-
2.0 Contextual foundation, research orientation and scope
This research project reflects my position as both a practitioner and an academic in the field of visual design. With over 10 years of professional experience as an independent visual designer and five years as a researcher and educator, my work is grounded in practical expertise and informed by theoretical frameworks. My dual role provides a balanced perspective that merges the practical demands of the design industry with the critical inquiry of academic research. The study draws on insights from literature, industry practices, and empirical observations, with the aim of developing practical tools for designers. A key component of this work involves evaluating how multimedia design students approach and experiment with color in their projects.
2.1 Observations from practice
1) Through my years as a visual designer and educator, I have repeatedly observed significant challenges in how professionals and students engage with and articulate color choices. These observations, made systematically through note-taking and journaling, reveal a consistent pattern of 'hesitation', limited vocabulary and a 'lack of confidence' in discussing and justifying color choices. One recurring observation is the evident discomfort and 'ironic distance' that often accompany conversations about color. Designers and students alike seem to struggle with expressing their rationale for color choices, frequently resorting to humor or overly simplistic explanations. I have noted a tendency to rely on brief, surface-level descriptions - such as “red,” “blue,”, “green” - or slightly more nuanced but still rudimentary terms like “dark red” or “grass green.” There is often an awkward pause or even self-deprecating laughter when individuals attempt to elaborate on their color choices, as if delving deeply into color theory or reasoning risks being perceived as frivolous or overly meticulous. This dynamic may stem from a cultural perception of color theory as a “soft science,” closely tied to aesthetic skills, decoration, fashion and interior design. It is - probably - considered as a feminin disciplin and less important attribute, rather than a rigorous design practice.
2) Another challenge I have observed lies in testing and validating color choices. Designers often rely on think-aloud methods during user testing sessions, but these sessions tend to focus on entire interfaces or visual products rather than isolating color for specific feedback. Test participants frequently lack the vocabulary (as well) to articulate their impressions of color, offering responses like “I like it” or “I don’t like it,” which provide little actionable insight for the designer. The absence of structured methods for testing color choices exacerbates this challenge, leaving designers without the tools to substantiate their decisions or improve their work based on user input.
3) Finally, I have noticed significant gaps in understanding how to analyze and contextualize color choices within branding frameworks or localized cultural contexts.Based on my observations, the three key themes: color presentation (the first), color test (the second) and color branding (the third) will form the focus of my literature review and exploratory design process. These themes emerged through the critical engagement and linguistic framing developed during my literature review, rather than being pre-defined categories. It is through the thorough analysis of sources and reflection on their implications that these areas of focus were articulated. Identified through my practice, interviews and field visits, they reflect significant gaps and challenges in current design approaches to color. My contribution to this field is to provide frameworks and insights that deepen understanding in these areas, ultimately transforming how designers approach and utilize color in their work.
Currently, students and professionals often rely on overly simplistic references, such as generalized online color psychology charts or design blogs (A). The chart below illustrates an example of such oversimplified tools, which exist in numerous variations across online platforms. While these resources can inspire initial ideas, they lack the depth and specificity required for robust color analysis and research. As a result, designers risk making assumptions that fail to resonate with their intended audiences or fully account for the intricate cultural and emotional associations tied to color. By addressing these shortcomings, this research aims to foster a more nuanced, informed, and strategic engagement with color in design practices.
Jutt, Hasnat, 2024 (A)
2.2 The contemporary color paradox
On one hand, color appears to have been marginalized in todays digital era, a phenomenon noted by Aaron Fine, who describes how color’s role has been diminished in some aspects of modern design practice (4: page 5 + chapter 8). This aligns with my observations in paragraph 2.1. On the other hand, there is a growing cultural fascination and interest in the history and significance of color. For instance, I recently encountered a reprinted edition of Répertoire de Couleurs by the Société des Chrysantémistes (6) in the gift shop at Arken Museum of Modern Art in Denmark, alongside Abraham Gottlob Werner's Nomenclature of Colours (7), a historic work mapping colors from nature that was famously used by Charles Darwin. Similarly, paint catalogs now feature evocative names like “Masala,” “Cloudy Day,” and “Royal Velvet,” emphasizing the narrative potential of color. There are several aesthetic coffee table books, either about historic color models or modern interpretations of color psychology and how the affect our everyday. Three examples:
- The Anatomy of Colour (8) by Patrick Baty is an in-depth exploration of the history and use of color in interior design and architecture. The book delves into historical color palettes, pigments, and their application, offering a rich visual and historical reference for designers and historians.
- Colour Confidence: A Practical Handbook to Embracing Colour in Your Home (9) by Jessica Sowerby offers practical guidance on selecting and combining colors in interior design.
- The Little Book of Colour: How to Use the Psychology of Colour to Transform Your Life (10) by Karen Haller explores the psychological and emotional impact of color.
This renewed interest in color suggests a latent desire to re-engage with color in a deeper, more meaningful way.
My observations highlight critical gaps in knowledge and practice, particularly in the areas of color presentation (and the language related), color branding and testing color. Paradoxically, while I observe a marginalization of color in a professional discourse - I also see a resurgence of cultural interest in understanding color as just described in former paragraph; Colour is kind of trending. This duality is what I term the Contemporary Color Paradox. In a digital era where color theory and selection are radically transformed - and arguably marginalized - there is an emerging cultural effort to revisit the aesthetic, philosophical, and scientific dimensions of color, as also Aaron Fine support (4: page 5 + chapter 8). This paradox underscores the need for contemporary designers to navigate the tensions between these two tendencies: the practical marginalization of color and its cultural re-emergence as a subject of fascination. By addressing this paradox, we can begin to bridge the gap between our historical understanding of color and the demands of modern design practice.
3.0 Current paradigm: Kaleidoscopic colour abundance
3.1 Colour 'before'
This review traces a significant paradigmatic shift in humanity's relationship with color, from its ancient origins to its modern applications. The earliest pigments, dating back 200,000 to 400,000 years, were discovered in Twin Rivers Cave, Zambia, by archaeologist Lawrence Barham (11, page 11). These pigments were used for body painting and cave art, serving aesthetic and ritualistic purposes rather than functional or economic ones (ibid). Historically, color was a scarce and valuable commodity, accessible primarily to the wealthiest social strata. Intense and rare hues required labor-intensive processes, elevating color to a symbol of power, prestige, and privilege (ibid). Artists and scientists focused on pigments derived from nature, cataloging hues, and understanding perception, with nature serving as the primary source and inspiration for color creation (12: page 30-31 + 13: page 12).
This dynamic began to change with the invention of synthetic pigments. The Industrial Revolution further transformed the landscape by enabling mass production, making a variety of hues widely available and necessitating the standardization of colors for consistent production processes (11, page 8). The democratization of textiles and materials expanded the accessibility of color, enabling its widespread use across industries. By the mid-19th century, Michel Chevreul played a pivotal role by publishing extensive works that introduced new colors for artists, designers, and manufacturers, creating masterpieces of 19th-century color printing (11: page 8).
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, print companies and manufacturers developed their own color tables for customer use, culminating in innovations like Pantone, established in 1986 (11: page 8). Both Chevreul’s and Pantone’s systems, along with later technologies, extended beyond production to include trend analyses, recommendations for color choices, and explorations of color psychology. This evolution has made color coding a universal visual language, particularly in the era of globalization and digital media, where it plays a crucial role in communication and branding (11: page 8).
3.2 Colour today
Today, color is accessable and democratized so almost everyone can choose colors, work with color, buy colorful textiles or colorful painting etc. Today, digital technologies, omnipresent screens, and postmodern culture have further revolutionized our interaction with color, offering what I describe as a kaleidoscopic abundance of color possibilities. Color is now readily available across every surface, from clothing and art to branding and digital interfaces, redefining the science and meaning of color itself.
Potentially, this abundance has also contributed to my observed paradox (paragraph 2.2): A disconnect between the tools available and the foundational knowledge of color theory. The paradox captures the duality of color's role in the digital era: while its practical significance in professional design appears diminished, there is a growing cultural fascination with its history, meaning, and emotional impact. This tension underscores the need for designers to reconcile the marginalization of color in modern practice with its re-emergence as a subject of aesthetic and philosophical exploration. Can my thesis about the paradox be scientifically supported by sources?
For a nuanced perspective on my hypothetical paradox, I draw on Aaron Fine, who identifies the marginalization of rigorous color education within creative disciplines. Fine critiques contemporary approaches to color theory, often reduced to superficial and disjointed presentations, such as those prevalent in online blogs or oversimplified popular resources (4, p. 294). He further contends that the very technologies promising limitless possibilities in color selection—digital tools like color pickers and pipette functions in design software—paradoxically alienate users from a deeper comprehension of color's historical and substantive foundations (4, p. 293). While these tools provide unparalleled efficiency, possibilities and accessibility, they risk transforming the process of color selection into a superficial choice devoid of context or awareness. This shift away from foundational studies has distanced designers from the deep histories, origins, and interactions of color. As Fine critiques, "color science today can seem like a dead dinosaur" with its practical and theoretical contributions obscured in the rush of mass production and digital standardization following World War II (4, page 293). The rich, interdisciplinary knowledge of color theory is now largely absent from daily practice, leaving designers to rely on pre-designed interfaces or coordinate systems like those in Photoshop (4, page 317). But still the designers have a lot of new and advanced technologies, softwares and tools available for color editing - like never before, I would say.
3.3 Defining and articulating the values of a larger-scale paradigmatic shift
To summarize and provide an overview, this study focuses on one overarching paradigm shift, taking a broad historical perspective by 'zooming out significantly on the historical timeline'. Within color theory, one could delve into specific decades or periods to explore the nuances of various trends in extensive detail. However, this is not the aim of this research project. Instead, I have adressed a single paradigm shift related to the accessibility of colors and designers' relationship to this accessibility. Further below, I have included a table outlining more detailed paradigms within color theory. The paradigm shift that I highlight and name in this project is:
Limited Color Access Paradigm: Defined by natural resources as the primary source of pigments, colors were scarce, expensive, and accessible only to the elite.
Unlimited Color Access Paradigm: Characterized by technological and digital advancements, colors have become democratized, ubiquitous, and a central element of identity and expression. This paradigmatic shift has been particularly intensified over the past 50 years with the advent of personal computers, smartphones, improved screen technologies, and AI-based tools. While industrial and digital revolutions introduced intermediate stages, this study focuses on this large-scale shift, where color has become omnipresent and integral to both design processes and everyday life (4, page 8).
This open color accessibility presents unique challenges for visual designers. As Fine notes, the absence of foundational education in color science leaves designers with limited vocabularies to articulate their choices and disconnected from the historical and emotional significance of colors (4, page 294). This issue aligns with my observations: a lack of confidence and vocabulary in articulating color choices, insufficient methods for testing and validating color decisions, and a limited ability to contextualize color within branding and cultural frameworks. Fine’s critique underscores the need for renewed attention to color research, proposing that the rich history and scientific contributions of color theory be reintroduced into contemporary practices (4, page 317). As this project argues, the current paradigm demands frameworks and methodologies that not only help designers navigate the kaleidoscopic possibilities of color but also reconnect them with its deeper origins, meanings, and impacts. By doing so, designers can move beyond pre-designed interfaces and superficial choices, fostering a more thoughtful, reflective, and innovative approach to color in design.
Based on this chapter and its sources, I have outlined a set of values for the paradigm shift that provide a sense of the many expanded opportunities of our time regarding colour, but also the challenges and consequences they may entail:
Limited Color Access Paradigm
Rare, Scarcely occuring
Uncommon, Exceptional
Expensive
Limited
Status symbol in housing and clothing - wealth - bold or prominent use
Technologically underdeveloped - limited possibilities - Must be invented and produced before use
Slow
Processed through material and substance
Unlimited Color Access Paradigm
Ubiquitous, Omnipresent
Overwhelming, Excessive
Inexpensive
Unlimited
Identity marker - aesthetics and narrative - subtle or understated use
Technologically advanced - numerous possibilities in print, production, light, design and on screens, Ready to use
Fast
Often processed through an interface
Further paradigms
By comparing Aaron Fine’s Color Theory: A Critical Introduction (4) with The Book of Color Concepts by Alexandra Loske and Sara Bader (5) and other sources, I observed several historical paradigmes. Below are the headings, notes and resources from the divergent research phase:
1: The Primordial Palette: The Foundations of Color in Human Culture
Time Period: Ancient Times (Pre-Common Era)
Earliest Uses: Natural pigments, such as ochre and charcoal, employed in cave paintings and rituals.
Symbolism in Ancient Societies: In Egypt and Mesopotamia, colors like blue and gold were used to signify divinity, protection, and power.
Sources:
Primary Source: "Pigments and Paints in Ancient Egypt" - British Museum Research Publications.
Secondary Source: The Colors of History by Clive Gifford - An analysis of color in early civilizations, including Egypt and Mesopotamia.
2: Philosophical Constructs of Color: Light, Divinity, and Beauty
Time Period: Classical Antiquity (c. 500 BCE - 300 CE)
Greek Theories of Light and Color: Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle viewed color as a manifestation of divine order, emerging from light.
Color in Roman Art: Roman mosaics and paintings reflected social status and beauty through the use of mineral-based pigments.
Sources:
Primary Source: On Colors by Aristotle - A foundational philosophical examination of color.
Secondary Source: Color and Meaning: Art, Science, and Symbolism by John Gage.
3: Sacred Hues: The Theology of Color in Religious Art
Time Period: Middle Ages (5th - 15th Century)
Symbolism in Christian Iconography: Colors gained distinct meanings, such as blue for the Virgin Mary and red for martyrdom.
Illuminated Manuscripts: Luxurious pigments like lapis lazuli were used, linking wealth with access to vibrant colors.
Sources:
Primary Source: The Art of Illumination: The Limbourg Brothers and the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry - Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Secondary Source: Colour in Art: A Brief History by John Gage.
4: The Renaissance Spectrum: Innovation in Light and Composition
Time Period: Renaissance (14th - 17th Century)
Advances in Light and Color Theory: Figures like Leonardo da Vinci explored the interplay of light and shadow in relation to color.
Development of Oil Paints: Artists achieved vibrant, layered compositions, transforming the artistic palette.
Sources:
Primary Source: Bright Earth: Art and the Invention of Color by Philip Ball - An accessible history of pigments and their influence on Renaissance art.
5: The Scientific Revolution: Rationalizing the Nature of Color
Time Period: Early Modern Period (17th - 18th Century)
Newton’s Prism Experiment (1671): Groundbreaking work revealed color as an inherent property of light, leading to the first scientific color wheel.
Goethe’s Psychological Approach: Theory of Colours (1810) highlighted the emotional and sensory aspects of color, contrasting Newton’s work.
Sources:
Primary Source: Opticks by Isaac Newton.
Secondary Source: Goethe’s Theory of Colours by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
6: Democratizing Color: The Industrial Chromatic Revolution
Time Period: Industrial Revolution (19th Century)
Synthetic Pigments: The invention of synthetic dyes revolutionized accessibility and affordability.
Systematic Color Organization: Albert Munsell’s chromatic systems influenced design, manufacturing, and education.
Sources:
Primary Source: A Color Notation by Albert Munsell.
Secondary Source: Chromatopia: An Illustrated History of Color by David Coles.
7: The Bauhaus Paradigm: Functional and Psychological Color
Time Period: Modernism (20th Century)
Color in Function and Design: The Bauhaus movement integrated color into architecture and design, focusing on its functional and spatial properties.
Advances in Color Psychology: Studies linked color to emotional and psychological responses, shaping fields such as branding and marketing.
Sources:
Primary Source: Interaction of Color by Josef Albers.
8: The Digital Kaleidoscope: Standardization Across Mediums
Time Period: Digital Age (Late 20th - Early 21st Century)
RGB and CMYK: Digital systems standardized color reproduction for screens and print.
Pantone’s Universal Standards: Industry-wide adoption of Pantone transformed visual communication and branding.
Sources:
Primary Source: Pantone: The Twentieth Century in Color by Leatrice Eiseman and Keith Recker.
Secondary Source: Color and Meaning: Practice and Theory in Renaissance Painting by Marcia B. Hall.
9: Sustainable and Intelligent Color: A New Era
Time Period: Present and Future (21st Century)
AI in Color Design: Algorithms generate customizable palettes, offering designers unprecedented precision.
Eco-Friendly Practices: Growing emphasis on non-toxic pigments and sustainable color production.
Sources:
Primary Source: Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for Business by Steven Finlay.
Secondary Source: The Secret Lives of Color by Kassia St. Clair.
Perspectival reflection:
Why do we observe chromophobia?
In this context, an intriguing reflection emerges. A hypothesis developed during this literature review is that the rising popularity of “muted,” desaturated color palettes—minimalist schemes, black-and-white or sepia filters, and interior design trends favoring earth tones or “neutrals” (as exemplified by the Wabi-Sabi aesthetic)—might represent a counter-reaction to the overwhelming, kaleidoscopic, and omnipresent explosion of color we have witnessed in recent decades.
Paradoxically, the growing interest in historical methods of pigment production reflects a nostalgic return to the artisanal, as seen in the work of artists like Margrethe Odgaard or David Coles’ recent book, which revisits the roots of natural pigment creation and their historical significance (5). This revival underscores how tradition and craft are influencing modern preferences amidst this kaleidoscopic context.
Chromophobia: The aversion to vibrancy
In exploring this trend, the concept of chromophobia becomes particularly relevant. Coined by David Batchelor in his seminal work Chromophobia, the term refers to a deep-seated cultural aversion to bright, vibrant colors, often perceived as excessive, vulgar, poor or unrefined (6). Historically, chromophobia has been tied to the Western preference for the “pure” and the “neutral,” often associated with rationality, order, and minimalism, in contrast to the vivid or saturated hues linked to emotion, the exotic, the queer or the primitive.
This aversion is evident in the contemporary turn toward muted palettes, which not only reflect a minimalist aesthetic but might also signal a psychological response to the overstimulation of color in our current digital and media-saturated environment. In this light, the growing embrace of desaturated and natural tones could be interpreted as an attempt to reclaim balance and authenticity in an era where vibrant, digital colors dominate both screens and branding interfaces.
Aesthetic and Cultural Implications
The interplay between these trends raises critical questions for visual designers: Is the preference for muted and natural tones a rejection of modern color excess, or does it represent a deeper cultural shift toward simplicity and sustainability? Moreover, how does this tension influence design practices, particularly when navigating the dual imperatives of individuality and trend conformity?
From cataloging colors to curating colors
Another theme I have examined and emphasized in this literature review is the contemporary approach to color use within visual design, fashion, interior design etc. In today’s expansive color landscape, systematic curation and standardization of colors remain essential practices. Pantone (A), Peclers Paris (B), Lidewij Edelkoort (C) and danish Pej Gruppen (D) engage in extensive cultural analysis to forecast trends, providing companies with insights into selecting colors that resonate with the current zeitgeist. In parallel, color management systems such as Pantone and the NCS (Natural Color System) (E) enable businesses to maintain color accuracy across production and branding, ensuring consistency in their visual identities. Additionally, tools like Adobe Color (F) and Coloro (G) offer advanced digital solutions for color precision, application and management, supporting designers in creating cohesive and impactful brand experiences.
In some way we can say that this is reflecting earlier efforts by figures such as Abraham Werner in 1814 (4) and Michel Chevreul in 1839 (5) because they 'mirror' these historical endeavors as they catalog and structure colors. But the new and modern tools and methods are now enhanced by advanced technology and screens. So we see the same approach in a new mediated culture. We find color management systems that ensure accurate calibration across digital and physical media as an example.
I will explain the 'mirroring' of these two activities across times as the next topic; Historically, early color theorists focused on cataloging and defining colors found in nature (6). Werner, as an example, mapped hues inspired by the observed nature, closely related to Charles Darwins work and methods. He was a mineralogisk and geologist that helped us define different hues and gave us a language for color. He thereby provided a catalogue for artist and scientists (6) that i called a Nomenclature. With this by hand artist and scientist were able to describe their work with more accuracy. Another important chemist, Michel Chevreul, studied color relationships to deepen the understanding, but furthermore experimented with the production of colors and developed the impressive and groundbreaking Cercle Chromatique with 72 'printed' colors (7). He invented new colors with other professionals in the foundation of Société des Chrysantémistes. This movement and their color production was important for artist, painters, designers, architects, tailors and craftsmen as they gave new possibilities of using colors (8).
INDSÆT CERCLE CHROMATIQUE AND WERNERS NOEMCLATURE
Both Werner and Chevreul participated in the work of establish a language for complex color hues observed in the nature, so humans was not limited to call them: red, yellow, green, blue etc. Today, however, as the possibilities for color use have expanded dramatically, the practice has evolved towards curation rather than exhaustive cataloging. Curated palettes and trend guides help designers and industries navigate this expansive field. Thus, the curated palettes serve not only as organizational tools but also as frameworks that provide cohesion and direction, shaping choices and guiding aesthetic consistency in a time of unprecedented color accessibility (9). So yes, we can certainly observe a common method and activity when we compare old color science like Werner and Chevreul with more contemprorary processes in working with colors.
Modern studies: A missing link and color fitness
In addition to foundational color theories, this study incorporates recent advancements and resources in color science and practice. Contemporary literature, such as online articles and recent publications, introduces innovative perspectives on the color wheel, often presenting it in 12-color variations. A few examples could be: Color Now by Lin Shijian, which is a practical book that maps color use in different industries and showcases remarkable examples of color use in visual products (10). Or Palette Perfect by Lauren Wager, which introduces concise color theory concepts but provides extensive aesthetic examples of color use and related palettes for designers to draw inspiration from (11). These sources frequently discuss methods for drawing inspiration from various inputs, such as using tools to extract colors from photographs. Such resources are essential in today’s design landscape, as they introduce digital solutions that support designers in creating effective color harmonies (e.g., matching colors in complementary or analogous schemes). A comprehensive list of these digital tools and literature is referenced on this page.
Building on these contemporary methods, I developed a graphic toolkit (linked here) that features updated color wheels and further demonstrates how these principles are applied practically. However, one of the central insights of this project lies in a paradox that many designers encounter today: while color selection may initially seem straightforward, the complexities emerge when attempting to articulate and justify these choices. I observe that designers frequently find themselves struggling with the abstract qualities of color, leading to simplified explanations, uncertainty, or hesitation. This challenge likely stems from the inherent connection between color and emotional response, as well as the difficulty of translating sensory experiences into language. In other words: We have a poor language when it comes to colors (12).
As part of the explanation of this observed paradox, the concept of the "Brand Gap", a term introduced by Marty Neumeier (13), is relevant. This idea has been further elaborated upon by Annette Hartelius, who argues that a vital link is missing between design choices and the vocabulary needed to communicate them effectively (14). In design, bridging this gap requires a disciplined approach to articulating emotional and sensory responses to visual perception: shapes, forms, colors, etc. This gap in communication is not only a linguistic issue but also a cognitive one, as designers often perceive colors intuitively and emotionally rather than analytically. When it comes to language, we have a more developed sense of analyzing words and meanings through rhetorical knowledge and experience. In contrast, the vocabulary for visual perception - remains potentially underdeveloped, leaving designers with limited tools to articulate their creative intentions effectively (14). Here I want to highlight that this is certainly also relevant when we talk about colors as a visual attribute. Design and colors are deeply intertwined with language and emotions - our language shapes how we process and discuss color. Therefore, we need to cultivate a specialized language linked to visual perception, particularly our perception of color.
To address this i will use the term "Color Fitness" a concept reflecting the idea that designers, like athletes, must continually “exercise” their sensory awareness and descriptive language skills to become proficient in color use and communication. This practice involves developing not only a refined visual sensitivity but also an expansive vocabulary to bridge the gap between perception and articulation. By engaging in "Color Fitness," we can systematically improve our ability to describe and communicate colors, ultimately building a bridge to close the gap and enabling more effective and impactful design decisions.
Indices
Finally, two literature indices present the essential sources engaged in this research project. The first table serves as a comprehensive index of relevant sources, each examined to build a broad understanding of color theory’s evolution and the various perspectives that have shaped the field. This index offers an overview of the historical and contemporary contributions that have informed the framework and methodology of this project. The second table emphasizes key sources that have deeply influenced my analysis and the specific knowledge contributions this project offers. I did study this literature further in the detail than in the first index. It has enriched my understanding of color as both a technical and aesthetic phenomenon within contemporary design. These sources have not only served as points of reference but have also guided the development of research questions and methodologies for investigating color's role in today’s visual and digital design practices.
The two indices can be found further down this page. You can click at the column categories to sort the index by year or writher.
The output of the literature study
As I collected and studied various sources, I was able to narrow my research focus through a hermeneutic process, allowing for a progressively refined understanding of the field (15). I conducted this literature review to establish a solid foundation for my research project. The output of the literature review is the review itself as a scientific contribution.
Based on my index of literature, I observe a range of categories within published works. It is my assessment that there is a particular lack of practical books offering applicable scientific insights. I see a lot of new color books focusing on giving inspiration on color choice in the early design proces. This research project aims to provide practical tools and frameworks directly implementable for students and designers in their design processes.
The Circle Model
The next step is to analyze and synthesize the material from this literature review in a typology that serves as both an exploratory tool and a 'compass' to limit the scope of my research contribution. This model not only structures the existing knowledge landscape but also identifies specific areas where my work and experience can build upon and extend current theories in a meaningful, contemporary context. You can find The Circle Model if you visit this page.
Sources
1) Arksey, Hilary, and Lisa O'Malley. "Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework." International Journal of Social Research Methodology. Vol. 8, no. 1, 2005, Taylor & Francis Group
2) Greenhalgh, Trisha, et al. "Storylines of research in diffusion of innovation: a meta-narrative approach to systematic review." Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 61, no. 2, 2005, Elsevier
3) Fine, Aaron, *Color Theory: A Critical Introduction*, 2022, Bloomsbury
4) Loske, Alexandra, and Bader, Sara, *The Book of Color Concepts: Volumes 1 and 2*, 2024, Taschen
5) Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (Eds.). (2008), The SAGE Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. SAGE Publications.
6) Barab, S., & Squire, K. (2004), Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground, The Journal of the Learning Sciences
5) Coles, David, Chromatopia - A Illustrated History of Color, 2018,Thames & Hudson
6) Batchelor, David, *Chromophobia*, 2000, Reaktion Books
6) Werner, Abraham Gottlob. Werner's Nomenclature of Colours, 1814, Natural History Museum
7) Chevreul, Michel Eugène. Cercle Chromatique, 1839; Gamme Chromatique, 1864, Librairie Renouard
8) Syme, Patrick, Werners Nomenclature of Colours, With Additions, 1821, Second Edition, Natural History Museum
7) Société des Chrysantémistes, Répertoire de couleurs: Pour aider à la détermination des couleurs des fleurs, des feuillages et des fruits. Nouvelle Édition du Répertoire Publié en 1905. 1385 nuanced, Réparties en 365 planches s'adressant, 2021, Chêne
8) Baty, Patrick. The Anatomy of Colour: The Story of Heritage Paints and Pigments. 2017, Thames & Hudson
9) St. Clair, Kassia, Before Pantone, There Was Werner’s Nomenclature of Colours, 2018, https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/pantone-there-was-werners-nomenclature-of-colours, Architectural Digest
10) Shijian, Lin, Color Now: Color Combinations for Commercial Design, 2018, Counter-Print
11) Wager, Lauren, Palette Perfect: Color Combinations Inspired by Fashion, Art and Style, 2017, Promopress
12) Travis, Tim, *The V&A Book of Colour in Design*, 2020, Thames & Hudson
13) Neumeier, Marty. The Brand Gap: How to Bridge the Distance Between Business Strategy and Design. 2003. New Riders Press
14) Hartelius, Anne Mette. *Visuel Kommunikation i et Følelsesperspektiv*. 1st edition, Samfundslitteratur, 2013
15) Gadamer, Hans-Georg, *Truth and Method*, 1975, Sheed & Ward
Links
A) https://www.pantone.com/eu/en/
B) https://www.peclersparis.com/en/consulting-services/trend-forecasting/
C) https://www.edelkoort.com/
D) https://pejgruppen.com/
E) https://ncscolour.com/en-eu
F) https://color.adobe.com
G) https://coloro.com/